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VOL. VI., No. 4. SS AUG; TEI09 
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fe 
Crxas 
Christian GAnutversity 
Bulletin 


SUPPLEMENT 


Aug., 1909 | 
U SITY OF ILLINDIS 


eet te lal 


PRESIDENT’S OFFICE. 


PUBLISHED BI-MONTHLY 
BY 
TEXAS CHRISTIAN UNIVERSITY, 


WACO (North Waco Station), TEXAS. 





Entered at the Postoffice at Waco (N rth Waco Station, Texas, as Second 
Class Matter, Under act of Congress of July 16.1894. 


Thesis: 


The Malarial 
Parasite 


Presented to the Faculty of 
TEXAS CHRISTIAN UNIVERSITY, 
in application for 
the Degree 
MASTER OF ARTS, 


May 1909 
2 a so BY a oe ee ee 


PAUL TYSON, 


Santa Anna, Texas. 


The Malarial Parasite 


The extent of the ravages of malarial fever on the human fam- 
ily can be safely estimated to equal that of the combined wars of 
the world. Perhaps in the near future the unexpected part it has 
played in the progress of civilization will be revealed. In many 
instances no sooner had the congested civilization reached its 
zenith, than it was wrecked by small-pox, cholera and bubonic 
plague. In nearly every case the inhabitants, on account of their 


uncleanliness, paved the way for the invasion of a pestilence, The 
bubonic plague alone is said to have destroyed thirty million peo-. 


ple within two centuries in Europe. ; 

In malaria, however, we have a disease of a different class and 
habits.. Instead of assailing man where he is strongest and most 
numerous, as in case of the great infections, it lies in wait for 
him where he is weakest. Lately we have begun to realize what 
an impediment it was to the pioneer and frontiersman of our own 
country. As fast as our forefathers began to settle in the Missis- 
sippi Valley they were attacked by malaria. According to their 
phraseology the effects were termed ‘chills and fever,’ “fevon- 
ager,” “mylary,”’ which are idential with the terms “jungle 
fever,” “African fever,” “black fever,’ so commonly found in the 
tropical countries. “Hardly a generation ago along the advanc- 
ing front of civilization in the Middle West, the whole life of the 
community was colored with a malarial tinge and the taste of 
quinine was as familiar as that of sugar.” It not only has been 
a barrier to civilization in cur country but its ravages have been 
felt in Panama, Africa, South America, Europe and other coun- 
tries. , 

It will not be necessary to go far away to get statistics concern- 
ing this disease. According to the statistics from seven United 
States army posts and three of the largest railway hospitals in 
Texas, at least one person in twelve each year suffers from ma- 


larial fever. The expense to the people of the State on account 
of this disease amounts from $5,000,000 to $10,000,000 yearly. At 
least three thousand people die from its effect annually. Every 
year yellow fever claims about fourteen victims and about $40,000 
is spent to prevent it. On the other hand malaria claims three 
thousand victims yearly and nothing is done to prevent it. ‘“Real- 
ly this condition would be amusing if it were not so serious.” 

In order to become more familiar with this disease the assist- 
ance of the zoologist, bacteriologist, entomologist and biologist 
will be necessary. Malarial fever is an acute infectious, epidemic, 
endemic and inoculable disease. The plasmodium of malaria be- 
ing the only cause. It is introduced into the human system by 
the bite of the female anopheles mosquito only. It is not known 
positively just why the latter insect should be the only one of his 
order to transmit the germ. It is generally accepted, however, 
that within the anopheles is found certain body or tissue juices 
and excretions which serve as a proper environment for the per- 
petuation of the plasmodium. Figure 1 shows the difference be- 
tween the malarial bearing (anopheles) and the harmless or com- 
mon mosquito (culex.) 

The malarial parasite is a very small living organism found in 
the red corpuscles of man belonging to the order Gymnosporidia, 
class sporazoa, and species, hemameba malaria (quartan) hema- 
meba vivax (tertian) and haemomenas praecox or Laverania 
malariae (estivo-autumnal). The latter species being the most in- 
jurious and violent. Among these species some may contain 
either male or female essence. (gameti). Those containing the 
male elements are termed microgametocytes and the cell produc- 
ing the female element are termed macrogametes. The life cycle 
of the germ is very complicated. It has selected two hosts in 
which to complete its life cycle, grow, sporulate and produce its 
offspring. It will be observed that the progagation is hindered 
as well as well protected by having two hosts. From the zool- 
ozist’s point of view the mosquito acts as a definite host, on the 
other hand man acts as the intermediate host. In describing the 
life cycle of the germ it will be more convenient and logical to 
describe, first, the cycle within the human system and, second, the 
cycle within the mosquito. ; 







FIG 1 


-ANOPHELES 
MOSQUITO 





3 (ENLARGED) 


“ PART*OF A GROUP OF EGGS DEPOSITED 
BY A FEMALE ANOPHELES AS THEY 


APPEARED RESTING NATURALLY . ON 
THE SURFACE OF THE WATER. 





e 


\ fem 
THE DIFFERENCES SETWEEN THE MALE AND FEMALE ARE _ 


BROUGHT OUT, THE STRIKING FEATHERY ANTENNAE ANDO 
PALPS OF THE MALE RENDER LF VERY CONSPICIOUS 


€G6G MASS DEPOSITED BY ine 
CULEX FEMALE 


og. cuLex ) i 
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ans rae MOSQUITO iy : y TA Ans A ge 
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vA 3 Ae \ NUMBER 5S, HALF GROWN’ LARVA OF 
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as e . . é 2A \ Sat BENEATH THE SURFACE FILE 
MALE : FEMALE 
6 
WATER SURFACE 7 


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NUMBER 6 HALF 
GROW LARVA OF 
CULEX IN BREATHING 
“ POSITION 





ANOPHELES (RESTING POSITIONS) CULEX 


The parasite is first conveyed into the blood by the bite of the 
female anopheles mosquito, in the form of a small one-celled or- 
ganism. It resembles a filamentous blast or spindle-shaped body 
and is termed an exotospore. In one instance the author ob- 
tained an anopheles mosquito which had been confined to the 
breeding-jar since hatching, and within it an excellent view of the 
exotospores was obtained. Figure II. is the view as seen under 
the microscope. The lower portion of the field (B) shows many 
of the exotospores closely adhering to each other. This condition 
is due to the cover slide having ruptured a large spore case or 
cyst which had not yet liberated the microdrganisms, similar to 
the one designated at A. At B the exotospores had a vigorous 
wave-like motion. They seemed to be disturbed or restless-like. 
Close observation of these microérganisms will reveal the nucleus 
near the center. In this instance these organisms lived for six 
hours under the cover slide. Above the field B, (at C) will be 
seen a few liberated exotospores. These had a vigorous motion. 
Upon entering the plasma of the blood these organisms began a 
further development. Its next stage can be seen in Fgure III., 
2 and 3. No. 3 is a more advanced stage of No. 2. Those who 
have seen an amoeba will see how closely the parasite resembles 
it. On account of this close resemblance the organism is called 
a small “amoeboid organism” or “amoebula.”” When the parasite 
reaches the development as in No. 3, it attaches itself to a corpus- 
cle. When it first attaches itself it looks as though it were “hang- 
ing on for dear life,” the cornpuscle seems to be trying to throw it 
off. The germ, however, will finally become thoroughly embedded 
in its host and there begin to feed upon it. (Fig. IID, 4). At 
this stage the plasmodium is called an ‘“‘intra-corpuscular body.” 
The parasite feeds and grows, and soon begins to get very large 
(as compared to size of its host). (Fig. III., 5). When it ap- 
proaches maturity as in Fig. III., 6, it begins to resemble a rosette 
or daisy head and is said to begin to sporulate. The parasite 
now has lost its amoeboid shape and has a somewhat rounded 
form. In Fig. III., 7, the sporulation is almost complete and the 
many new parasites can be readily seen. When they become 
matured the corpuscle breaks and liberates many of the new 
parasites as seen in Fig. III., 8. These again enter the carpus- 


cles and the same development takes place as just described. The 
cycle is thus complete, development having taken place asexual- 
ly. If after the amoebula (Fig. III., 3) enters the corpuscle, it 
takes forty-eight hours to sporulate (Fig. III., 8), it is termed a 





tertian parasite. If seventy-two hours are required for the sporu- 
lation, it is termed a quartan parasite. In case of the aestivo- 
autumnal it takes forty-eight hours with more or less irregu- 
larity. Each species of the plasmodium just mentioned will be 
discussed moire minutely later. 


When the corpuscle breaks (Fig. III., 8) the germs are liberated 
and at the same time a poison secreted by them is liberated, 
which has effects upon the nerves so commonly called “chills” or 
“fever.” Prior to the chill or fever the rosette forms (Fig. III., 
7) are most numerous, at least they are more easily found, in the 
blood near the surface. During pyrexia the organisms are found 
mostly in the internal organs. 

As stated above, there are sexual cells called gametes, which 
are formed from certain ones of the amoebulae. They undergo 
no further change while in the human subject. In the tertian 
and quartan species these gametes resemble the largest amoe- 
bulae. The female cell has more of a granular appearance than 
does the male. In the aestivo-autumnal the gametes have a 
crescent-like shape (Fig. IV., 1). The male and female crescents 
can be distinguished by the arrangements and color of the granu- 
lar matter found within them. In the former the pigment is 
scattered and less dark, in the latter the granular matter is 
coarser and darker, and is usually confined to the central portion 
of the organism. Quinine, the common remedy for malaria, does 
not have any effect upon them. When the anopheles mosquito 
feeds upon man affected with malaria, it swallows blood corpus- 
cles, parasites and gametes. The latter organisms immediately 
begin developing into form as shown in Fig. IV., 3 and 4. The 
next development that takes place is shown in No. 5. The male 
cel) will develop flagella-like shoots which are very long. In 
many instances they have a bulbous terminal, a certain amount 
of chromatin surrounded by protoplasm. These are similar to 
spermatozoan and are called microgametocytes. As they lash 
about they will become detached from the parent body and go 
swimming off. Presently one will strike the female (macro- 
gamete) cell and fertilize it (Fig. IV., 6). It is then termed a 
zygote. This zygote is then endowed with the faculty of pene- 
trating the muscular walls of the insect’s stomach or intestine. 
A membrane then forms around the zygote called a sporocyst. 
After a few days development the zygote or odcyte projects into 
the abdominal cavity cf the insect, and looks like excrescences or 
warts. (Fig. V.) While develoning, the zygote divides into a 
number of cells termed blastophores. Fig. VI., 10 to 17, will 


FIG IIL (con) FIGIIT (CON) 


CORPUSCLE 





THE PARASITE OF TERTIAN MALARIA © (HEMAMEBA ViIVAR) 
(WRIGHTS MODIFICATION OF LEISHMAN'S STAIN) 








2 
ry af 
ee et ee Me 
Pa ey, 
_ Nee on ae «= 
ARTAN M i (ERAMEBA’ MALARIA 
THE PARASITE OF. “COART any Lov th } 


1,1 YOUNGEST FORMS, 2.2.3. MATURER FORMS 


6 a Ss & me 4 


4 PRESEGMENTING FORMS. 5,SEGMENTING FORM. 
i 





THE PARASITE OF AESTIVO- + AUTUMNAL MALARIAL. TLAVERANIA MALARIAE.) 


12,3,4°EARLY RING FORM S67 MATURER FORMS. @,9 CRESCENT FORMS 10,1112 OVOIDS. THESE 
ARE THE ONLY FORMS FOUND IN THE PERIPHERAL BLOOD. SEGMENTING BOOIES OCCUR IN INTERNAL ORGANS 
MIGHLY MAGNIFIED 


« 


show this structure. In about ten days the zygote becomes fully 
developed and is generally termed a cyst, which appears to be 
packed with zygoblasts (Fig. VI., 17). The cyst becomes so dis- 
tended with these small spindle-shaped spores that it bursts and 
the latter are set free in the body cavity. “This is similar to the 
rupture of the mother tick by her young.” These spores on being 
liberated are mashed upward into the salivary glands of the in- 
sect and are poured out with the saliva into the blood of man 
when the insect bites him. These fiilamentous blasts in man will 
develop into the intra-corpuscular bodies or amoebulae which will 
within two to twenty-one days cause chills or fever. It will be 
in order to remember that the mosquito does not possess a circu- 
latory system as we do, but that the white-colored blood cir- 
culates quite freely throughout the body by means of a dorsal 
vein. The latter organ is only a mere tube which contracts and 
expands with each pulsation. It is quite easy then for the spin- 
dle-shaped bodies to be drifted into the salivary glands. The 
blasts are not only drifted into the salivary glands, but through- 
out the entire system of the insect. 

The three species of the parasite will now be discussed more in 
detail—the quartan, tertian and aestivo-autumnal. Their techni- 
cal name has already been given. 

The development of the cycle of quartan fever is seventy-two 
hours and produces pyrexia every third day. For this specie the 
maximum period of incubation is twenty-one days, the minimum 
eleven, or a general average of fourteen days. While the para- 
site is growing within the corpuscle the latter does not change its 
size or appearance. The general outline of the parasite is more 
clearly defined than those of the tertian (both species resem- 
bling). When stained by the Romanowsky method the granu- 
lar matter is coarser and of a darker pigment. ‘“‘The fully de- 
veloped sporocyte has a daisy head appearance, dividing by regu- 
lar radial segmentation into six to twelve spores which, on be- 
coming free, are rounded in form.” (See Fig. VIII., for stained 
views of the parasite). 

For tertian fever the maximum period of incubation is twenty- 
one days, the minimum six days, the average being eleven days. 
The evele of development is completed in forty-eight hours. When 





A (MAGNIFIED) 6 





STOMACH OF MOSQUITO SHOWING CYSTS 
IMBEDED IN MUSCULAR LAYERS 







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Goryeusses 





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Yes, 
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examining a patient for malarial (fresh blood examination) the 
eye must be trained to observe any especially weak or irregular 
shaped corpuscle. The tertian parasite always makes the corpus- 
cles swell and have a “pale” appearance. Its outlines are not as 
clearly defined as those of the above parasite. It has, however, 
more of an amoeboid movement than does the quartan. When 
stained by the Romanowsky method the pigments show to be 
small and of a yellowish-brown tint. The sporocyte develops 
larger than the quartan; liberating from fifteen to twenty spores, 
which -have somewhat oval shape. This small oval or ring- 
shaped parasite has a large pigment cell in one end and when it 
attaches itself to a corpuscle it has its greatest amoeboid move- 
ment. As the parasite increases in size it loses its amoeboid 
movement and form. At the end of twenty-four hours it is about 
three-fourths the size of the swollen and pale corpuscle and is*“‘in 
form of a spheroidal or elliptical, homogeneous body.” At this 
stage of the development the most pigment is found in the outer 
edge. The full grown parasite is about four-fifths the size of the 
corpuscle. The granluar matter is coarser than at former stages. 
The rosette forms are most numerous just before the chill, rapidly 
appearing after the pyrexia. (See Fig. VII. for stained views of 
the parasite. ) 

For the aestivo-autumnal fever the maximum period of incuba- 
tion is fourteen days, the minimum two days, or a general average 
of six days. The cycle occupies forty-eight hours—not as a rule, 
however, because the cycle of this parasite is irregular. This 
species of the parasite gives rise to and causes the most malig- 
nant type of fever. The germ upon attaching itself to the corpuscle 
has the appearance of a “signet ring”’ and is quite often termed 
as “‘the aestivo-autumnal signet ring.” It is quite a common 
thing to find two or three and occasionally four of these parasites 
at ene time clinging to the same corpuscle. The young parasite 
is further characterized by being void of granular matter. Upon 
reaching maturity, however, a few small pigments are present. 
It requires about twenty-four hours for the large signet ring to 
reach its maturity as a signet ring form, if it further develops in 
size it will become slightly irregular or the outlines of the ring 
are incomplete. The corpuscle in which the parasite is feeding 


shrinks up and has a copper color—the full grown organism 
occupying about one-half of the corpuscle. The fully developed 
sporocyte gives rise to from six to twelve spores, which are very 
small and slightly irregular. This sporulation is very. rarely 
found in the peripheral blood. It takes place in the internal 
organs. This species of the plasmodium is the most pernicious, It 
bieaks up more of the corpuscles than the others. The crescent 
shaped gametes have already been discussed in connection with 
the life cycle of the germ within the mosquito. 

The following is a comparison of the tertian and aestivo- 
autumnal: 

I. The general shape of the tertian ring is slightly irregular. 
The shape of the aestivo-autumnal is ‘geometrically circular and 
usually with a typical signet-like swelling.” 

II. A few grains of pigment are always found in the early 
tertian ring, and always absent in the aestivo-autumnal. There 
are a few rare exceptions. 

III. The tertian always contains pigments before the spores 
begin to form. In case of the latter species, it always begins 
the formation of spores prior to the appearance of the pigment. 

IV. The corpuscle always swells while the tertian is feeding 
upon it—the corpuscle shrinks while the latter species is feeding. 

The name “Malaria,” though popular, is an unscientific name 
for the disease. Before the plasmodium was discovered it was 
generally accepted by the public and a majority of the medical 
profession that the disease was contracted upon exposure to the 
bad air, henee the name ‘“Mal-aria,’ meaing bad air. Of all 
forms of “bad air’ the night air was considered to be most 
violent; it was especially “poisonous” if it came from the region 
of the swamps. It is really the most dreaded air now because 
the anopheles mosquito delights in meandering around in it. The 
air is “still” and still air is the only kind in which he can fly 
at will. As to the real chemically poisonous effects of the night 
air no harm can come. If the mosquitoes were driven from the 
low or swampy places, man might live within that environment 
a life time and never become affected with malaria. 

Before the germ was discovered some men interested in the 
cause of malaria had chemists to analyze the airs of the swampy 


districts. When compared with the analysis of the higher land 
air it was practically the same. This seemed to crush the idea 
that the disease was caused by the low land air. Another scient- 
ist discovered a small one celled organism in moist dirt and im- 
mediately it was given out to the world that the cause of malaria 
had been discovered. He claimed that the “germ” emerged from 
the earth at night only and was carried by the wind into the 
room of the sleeper. In order to prove-to the people that the 
“unknown cause” had been found he placed some earth con- 
taining these organisms in the window of a bed room. In due 
time the occupant developed a case of malaria. (The mosquitoes 
had been feeding as usual during the trial.) The discoverer was 
praised considerably until another sceintist who doubted the 
power of the organism to develop malaria gave it a test. He 
swallowed many of the organisms and never suffered from an 
attack of fever. This crushed the name of the ‘“‘late discoverer.” 
The néxt important step in solving the mystery was the ob- 
servance of some that those occupying the second floor in a 
building suffered less than those occupying the first. The same 
“air” was breathed in each instance, but it was in motion more 
in the first case than the latter (air being higher from the 
earth). 

The germ was finally found by Laveran in 1880. Finding also 
that it was an animal organism instead of vegetable, scientists 
began to search for some other animal as the distributor. Since 
the mosquito fed on man more frequently than on any other 
animal and because he flew at night when the “bad air” was 
rising, led many to suspect him. Finally in 1885, Dr. Ross 
“discovered and positively identified the plasmodium undergoing 
a cycle of its own development in the body of the mosquito”’— 
the problem was solved. The above is a brief review of the 
discovery of the plasmodium of malaria. 

The date of the first case of malarial fever in the history 
of the world will never be known any more than the antiquity 
of smallpox or measles. Where the first parasire came from no 
one knows. All that scientists can say is that cells produce like 
cells and “like begets like.” In other words ,the first malarial 
parasite came from some pre-existing malarial parasite. 


It is startling to think of the many human lives destroyed by 
this microdrganism “in the thousands of years of the world’s 
history.” Then recall that the germ was discovered only twenty- 
nine years ago. “It is a glorious thought for us in this twentieth 
century to be engaged in putting such an arch enemy of man- 
kind under our feet and to stay the hand of death from those 
we love.” 

Be a benefactor by removing the breeding places of mosquitoes. 
Cover all standing water with a filin of kerosene which will 
prevent the larva, the common wriggler, from reaching the air 
with his breathing tube, shown in Figure I, 5. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY. 


Zoology: Linville & Kelley. 
Bacteria, Yeasts and Molds in the Home: Conn. 
Bacteriology: Muir & Ritchie. 
Clinical Examinations of the Blood: Cabot. 
Malarial Fever: Albert Woldert. 
‘Malaria: Woods & Hutchinson. 
Diagnosis by Means of the Blood: Watkins. 
Malarial Fever: fF. Loffler. 

- Family, Haemamoebidae: Wasielewski. 
Medical Review. 
The Mosquitoes of the United States: L. O. Howard. 
United States Government Report on Malarial Fever. 








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